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This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Preparation of medicinal plants for experimental purposes is an initial step and key in achieving quality research outcome.
Definition of terms Medicinal plant. Petroleum ether 0. Diethyl ether 0. Ethyl acetate 0. Chloroform 0. Dichloromethane 0. Acetone 0. Ethanol 0. Methanol 0. Water 1. Open in a separate window.
It is the most polar solvent and is used in the extraction of a wide range of polar compounds. It dissolves a wide range of substances; it is cheap, nontoxic, nonflammable, and highly polar. It promotes bacterial and mold growth; it may cause hydrolysis, and a large amount of heat is required to concentrate the extract.
It is also polar in nature, miscible with water, and could extract polar secondary metabolites. It is nontoxic at low concentration, and as small amount of heat is required for concentrating the extract. It does not dissolve fats, gums, and wax; it is flammable and volatile. It is a nonpolar solvent and is useful in the extraction of compounds such as terpenoids, flavonoids, fats, and oils. It is colorless, has a sweet smell, and is soluble in alcohols.
It is also well absorbed and metabolized in the body. It has sedative and carcinogenic property. It is a nonpolar solvent and is useful in the extraction of compounds such as alkaloids, terpenoids, coumarins, and fatty acids. It is miscible with water, has low boiling point, and is tasteless in nature.
It is also a very stable compound and does not react with acids, bases, and metals. It is highly volatile and flammable in nature. This is a unique solvent of extraction and is highly polar and extremely heat stable. It can remain in a liquid state even at 3,oC and usable where high temperature is applicable.
It has extreme miscibility with water and other solvent and is very suitable in the extraction of polar compounds. It has excellent solvent that attracts and transmit microwave, and hence it is suitable for microwave-assisted extraction.
It is nonflammable and is useful for liquid-liquid extraction and highly polar. It is not ideal for preparation of tinctures. Factors to be considered in choosing extraction method a Stability to heat. Commonly used methods in the extraction of medicinal plants i Maceration. This is an extraction procedure in which coarsely powdered drug material, either leaves or stem bark or root bark, is placed inside a container; the menstruum is poured on top until completely covered the drug material.
The container is then closed and kept for at least three days. At the end of extraction, the micelle is separated from marc by filtration or decantation. Subsequently, the micelle is then separated from the menstruum by evaporation in an oven or on top of water bath. This is an extraction process such as maceration. The drug material is grinded into fine powder, and then placed inside a clean container. The extraction solvent hot or cold is then poured on top of the drug material, soaked, and kept for a short period of time.
In addition, it is an appropriate method for preparation of fresh extract before use. The solvent to sample ratio is usually or depending on the intended use. This is an extraction method that involves the use of moderate heat during extraction process. The solvent of extraction is poured into a clean container followed by powdered drug material.
The mixture is placed over water bath or in an oven at a temperature about 50 o C. This method is suitable for plant materials that are readily soluble. This is a process that involves continuous hot extraction using specified volume of water as a solvent. A dried, grinded, and powdered plant material is placed into a clean container.
Water is then poured and stirred. Heat is then applied throughout the process to hasten the extraction. The ratio of solvent to crude drug is usually or It is used for extraction of water soluble and heat stable plant material.
The apparatus used in this process is called percolator. It is a narrow-cone-shaped glass vessel with opening at both ends. A dried, grinded, and finely powdered plant material is moistened with the solvent of extraction in a clean container.
More quantity of solvent is added, and the mixture is kept for a period of 4h. Subsequently, the content is then transferred into percolator with the lower end closed and allow to stand for a period of 24h. The lower part of the percolator is then opened, and the liquid allowed to drip slowly. Some quantity of solvent was added continuously, and the extraction taken place by gravitational force, pushing the solvent through the drug material downward.
The extract is separated by filtration followed by decantation. The marc is then expressed and final amount of solvent added to get required volume. This process is otherwise known as continuous hot extraction. The apparatus is called Soxhlet extractor made up of glass.
It consists of a round bottom flask, extraction chamber, siphon tube, and condenser at the top. A dried, grinded, and finely powdered plant material is placed inside porous bag thimble made up of a clean cloth or strong filter paper and tightly closed.
The solvent is then heated from the bottom flask, evaporates, and passes through the condenser where it condenses and flow down to the extraction chamber and extracts the drug by coming in contact. Consequently, when the level of solvent in the extraction chamber reaches the top of the siphon, the solvent and the extracted plant material flow back to the flask.
This method is suitable for plant material that is partially soluble in the chosen solvent and for plant materials with insoluble impurities. However, it is not a suitable method for thermolabile plant materials. Large amount of drug can be extracted with smaller amount of solvent. It is also applicable to plant materials that are heat stable.
No filtration is required, and high amount of heat could be applied. Regular shaking is not possible, and the method is not suitable for thermolabile materials.
This is one of the advanced extraction procedures in preparation of medicinal plants. The technique uses mechanism of dipole rotation and ionic transfer by displacement of charged ions present in the solvent and drug material. This method is suitable for extraction of flavonoids. It involves the application of electromagnetic radiation in frequencies between MHz and GHz and wavelength between 1cm and 1 m. The technique uses microwave radiation to bombard an object, which can absorb electromagnetic energy and convert it into heat.
Subsequently, the heat produced facilitates movement of solvent into the drug matrix. However, when nonpolar solvent is used, the microwave radiation released will produce only small heat; hence, this method does not favor use of nonpolar solvents.
Microwave-assisted extraction has special advantages such as minimizing solvent and time of extraction as well as increase in the outcome. This method is suitable only for phenolic compounds and flavonoids. Compounds such as tannins and anthocyanins may be degraded because of high temperature involved. This process involves application of sound energy at a very high frequency greater than 20 KHz to disrupt plant cell all and increase the drug surface area for solvent penetration.
Consequently, secondary metabolites will be released. In this method, plant material should dry first, grinded into fine power, and sieved properly. The prepared sample is then mixed with and appropriate solvent of extraction and packed into the ultrasonic extractor. Ultrasound-assisted extraction is applicable to small sample; it reduces the time of extraction and amount of solvent used, and maximizes the yield.
This method is difficult to be reproduced; also, high amount of energy applied may degrade the phytochemical by producing free radical. Test for phenols a Ferric chloride test. Test for protein a Biuret test. Chemical methods This extraction method is based on the type of functional groups possessed by a compound in the given mixture.
Physical methods Physical methods used in separation of compounds from mixtures include separation funnel method, chromatographic techniques, fractional distillation, fractional crystallization, fractional liberation, and sublimation. Mechanisms of separation in chromatography i Adsorption chromatography. Separation is performed based on the interaction between compounds to be separated and the stationary phase.
In this case, the stationary phase will pull and remove compounds via hydrophobic, non-covalent Van der Waals forces of attraction. The compound that is loosely bound will first be eluted by the mobile phase. Compounds are separated by addition of two or more immiscible solvents in to the mixture of an extract. Each compound will part away from the mixture by dissolving in the portion of solvent where it is soluble. The stationary phase is a ligand positioned in a separating column.
The mobile phase applied washed down the compounds that have no affinity for the stationary phase. As such, compounds with high affinity for stationary phase get attracted and separated.
The concept of ion exchange is useful in separation of polar compounds based on the type of charge they possessed.
As such like charges attract, whereas unlike charges repelled. Like-charge substances attracted to each other and get separated the mixture or extract. This method considers separating compounds based on their molecular size by application of mesh of different diameters. It is also known as gel filtration or molecular sieving.
Chromatographic techniques used in the separation of compounds from a mixture or extracts 1. This method is useful in the identification of compounds based on chemical structure and molecular weight.
The aim is to sequence and identify the unknown compound in a mixture. The substances usually identified include oligonucleotides and peptides. The signal was first detected using electron ionization energy of 70eV; also, the sample spectra are detected and recorded as percentage peak.
Compounds are identified based on their relative molecular mass and molecular weight. This can be achieved by plotting mass of the fragmented ions against the charges of individual ion. Various secondary metabolites such as phenols, anthocyanins, tannins, and polymer dyes could be detected at certain frequencies.
Total phenolic content and other secondary metabolites can be established using this technique. Specific frequencies were used to identify flavonoids nm , phenolic compounds nm , anthocyanins nm , and phenolic acids nm. This technique pays more attention to the physical properties of the bioactive molecule such as number and array of the carbon atom, presence of isotopes of carbon, hydrogen atom, and protons.
It also described how atoms are arranged in a molecule. This method tries to assess functional groups present in a compound. Knowledge of the functionalgroup helps in defining the physical and chemical properties of a given compound.
Also, single, double, and multiple bonds are identified through this process. Liquid samples are identified using sodium chloride plates, whereas solids samples are determined using potassium bromide milled together and compressed into a thin pellet. The result is recorded as a spectrum that is percentage transmittance. Lastly, the spectra are analyzed; the peaks obtained at certain wave number are compared with standard reference. C ONCLUSION Several works have been done on medicinal plant either to investigate and prove a reported claim of biological activity or to mimic its traditional medicinal use based on ethnomedicinal survey.
Financial support and sponsorship Nil. Conflicts of interest There are no conflicts of interest. Phytochemicals: Extraction methods, identification, and detection of bioactive compounds from plant extracts. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. Azwanida NN. A review on the extraction methods use in medicinal plants, principle, strength, and limitation. Med Aromat Plants. Pandey A, Tripathi S. Concept of standardization, extraction, and pre-phytochemical screening strategies for herbal drug. Doughari JH.
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In the early stage, one liquid phase was coated to a solid matrix silica gel, carbon, cellulose, etc. The disadvantage of an easily removed stationary phase and unrepeatable results has led to this kind of PC being rarely used today. The bonded-phase, in which the liquid stationary phase is chemically bound to the inert support, which is used as the stationary phase overcomes those drawbacks. Commercially available alkyl such as C8 and C18, aryl, cyano and amino substituted silanes are often used as bonded phases, which are widely used to separate a variety of natural products, especially in the final purification step.
A novel polyacrylamide-based silica stationary phase was synthesized by Cai et al. Counter-current chromatography CCC is kind of PC that holds the liquid stationary phase by gravity or centrifugal force. CCC has rarely been used in early stages due to its poor stationary retention, long separation time and labor intensive process. The hydrodynamic CCC systems such as HSCCC have a planetary rotation movement around two rotating axes with no rotating seals, which offers a low pressure drop process.
Hydrostatic CCC, e. The high system pressure in CPC prevents the improvement of the resolution by increasing the length of the column. Compared to the conventional column separation method using a solid stationary phase, both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic CCC systems offer some advantages including the elimination of irreversible adsorption and peak tailing, high loading capacity, high sample recovery, minimal risk of sample denaturation and low solvent consumption.
The limitation of CCC is that it only separates the compounds in a relatively narrow polarity window. Tang et al. Li et al. Few reports could be obtained due to commercial confidentiality. It is difficult to judge whether hydrostatic or hydrodynamic CCC is better for industrial applications.
Users might select different types of CCC instrument for different purposes. When the stationary phase is poorly retained in hydrodynamic CCC due to high viscosity and small density differences between the mobile and stationary phases, the hydrostatic CCC is more practical than hydrodynamic CCC because the retention of the stationary phase of hydrostatic CCC is less sensitive to the physical properties of liquid systems and will have a higher retention of the stationary phase.
When the stationary phase is well retained in hydrodynamic CCC, higher separation efficiency will be obtained from hydrodynamic CCC than from hydrostatic CCC with the same liquid system and similar column volumes because hydrostatic CCC has relatively low partition efficiency due to a limited degree of mixing, and the hydrodynamic system provides efficient mixing to yield a high partition efficiency. The separation of natural products by membrane filtration MF or gel filtration chromatography GFC is based on their molecular sizes.
In MF, the semipermeable membrane allows smaller molecules to pass through and retains the larger molecules. MF of natural products could be characterized as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and nanofiltration based on the pore size of the membrane applied. Membrane filtration has been a powerful tool for the concentration, clarification and removal of impurities in the lab, as well as in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Coupling membrane filtration is applied when a single membrane filtration step is not satisfactory. A sequence of microfiltration, ultrafiltration and nanofiltration was applied in the isolation of bioactive components from olive leaf extract. Microfiltration followed by ultrafiltration removed the impurities larger than 5 kDa. Nanofiltration recovered the antioxidative and antibacterial polyphenols and flavonoids, and the content of the major component, oleuropein , in the nanofiltration retentate was concentrated approximately ten times [ 74 ].
Gel filtration chromatography is also known as gel permeation chromatography or size exclusion chromatography. The small molecules have a longer retention time in GFC than large molecules. Sephadex is formed by cross-linking dextran, and the G-types of Sephadex were used for the separation of hydrophilic compounds such as peptides [ 75 ], oligosaccharides and polysaccharides [ 76 ]. Sephadex LH20, a hydroxypropylated derivative of Sephadex G25, has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic natures.
An adsorption mechanism was also involved in separation using Sephadex LH Sephadex LH can be used for the separation of a wide variety of natural products in either an aqueous or non-aqueous solvent system. Three new pyrimidine diterpenes, axistatins 1—3 — , Fig. Polyacrylamide bio-gel P [ 79 ] and cross-linked agarose [ 80 ] were also used in the separation of natural products.
Ion-exchange chromatography IEC separates molecules based on the differences in their net surface charge. Some natural products, such as alkaloids and organic acids possessing a functional group capable of ionization, might be separated by IEC. The charged molecules could be caught and released by ion-exchange resin by changing the ionic strength of the mobile phase e. Cation ion-exchange resins were used for the separation of alkaloids, while the anion ion-exchange resins were used for the separation of natural organic acids and phenols.
The positively charged anthocyanins were separated from the neutral polyphenolic compounds in the XAD-7 treated Actinidia melanandra fruit kiwifruit extract using Dowex 50WX8 cation ion-exchange resin [ 81 ]. Molecular distillation separates the molecular by distillation under vacuum at a temperature far below its boiling point. It is a suitable distillation method for separating thermosensitive and high-molecular-weight compounds.
Borgarello et al. The obtained fraction had antioxidant properties and could stabilize the sunflower oil [ 84 ].
Gas chromatography GC with high separation efficiency and fast separation and analysis makes it potentially the ideal preparative method for the separation of volatile compounds. The injection port, column, split device and trap device of GC equipment must be modified for preparative separation due to a lack of commercial Prep-GC [ 86 ].
Five volatile compounds, namely, curzerene 98 6. Prep-GC was also applied for the separation of natural isomers. Prep-GC has become an important separation method for natural volatile compounds; however, a heavier sample load and the large-diameter preparative column employed decreased the efficiency [ 89 ]. Meanwhile, the disadvantages of Prep-GC, including the lack of commercial Prep-GC equipment, consumption of a large volume of carrier gas, the decomposition of thermolabile compounds under high operation temperature, the difficulties of fraction collection, and low production, still restrict the usage of Prep-GC.
SFC uses supercritical fluid as the mobile phase. SFC integrates the advantages of both GC and liquid chromatography LC as the supercritical fluids possess properties of high dissolving capability, high diffusivity and low viscosity, which allows rapid and efficient separation. Thus, SFC can use a longer column and smaller particles of the stationary phase than HPLC, which provides greater numbers of theoretical plates and better separation. SFC can be used for the separation of non-volatile or thermally labile compounds to which GC is not applicable.
The polarity of the widely used mobile phase, S-CO 2 , in SFC is close to the polarity of hexane, with the result that SFC was used for the separation of non-polar natural products such as fatty acids, terpenes and essential oils for many years.
Eluent modifiers such methanol and acetonitrile enhance the elution strength, which is increasing the interest in separating polar natural products by SFC [ 90 , 91 , 92 ]. Zhao et al. Yang et al. The non-aqueous mobile phase used in SFC prevented the tautomerization of the separated spiro oxindole alkaloids [ 94 ].
SFC is also applied in the separation of natural enantiomers. The chiral separation of R and S goitrins was successfully achieved by prep-SFC on a Chiralpak IC column using acetonitrile as the organic modifier [ 95 ].
Molecular imprinted technology has been an attractive separation method in the last decade due to its unique features, which include high selectivity, low cost and easy preparation. Many complementary cavities with the memory of size, shape, and functional groups of the template molecules are generated when the template molecules are removed from the molecular imprinted polymer MIP.
Thus, the template molecule and its analogs will have the specific recognition and selective adsorption for the MIP. MIPs have been widely used in the separation of natural products or as solid-phase extraction sorbents for sample preparation of herbal materials to enrich the minor compounds.
Ji et al. Ma et al. The MIP was prepared with methyl methacrylate as the monomer, solanesol as the template molecule and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as the crosslinker by a suspension polymerization method. A total of You et al. The designed thermo-responsive magnetic MIP showed good imprinting factor for curcuminoids in a range between 2. Simulated moving bed SMB chromatography uses multiple columns with stationary phases bed. The countercurrent movement of the bed is simulated through rotary valves, which periodically switch the inlet feed and eluent and outlet extract and raffinate.
The SMB process is a continuous separation method and a powerful tool for the large-scale separation of natural products with the advantage of lower solvent consumption over a shorter period of time.
Two cyclopeptides, cyclolinopeptides C and E — , Fig. Kang et al. Supercritical fluids can also be used as the desorbent in SMB chromatography. Liang et al. The components in the extract subjected to separation were complex, and generally, no pure compound will be separated in one column chromatography.
Multi-dimensional separation based on the solid phase extraction and coupling of multiple columns with different stationary phases greatly improves the separation efficiency. With more commercial multiple dimensional separation equipment entering the market, the separation of natural products is becoming more rapid, efficient and automated.
Usually, the target compound was enriched by first dimensional separation and purified by last dimensional separation. A novel volatile compound, 2 E ,6 E methyl 4-methylcyclohexenylidene heptenal , was purified by a three-dimensional prep-GC from wampee essential oil [ ]. Five antioxidant compounds, including two alkaloids [glusodichotomine AK and glusodichotomine B ] and three flavonoids [tricin , homoeriodictyol Fig. Sciarrone et al. Patchouli alcohol , Fig.
They found that the first dimensional separation using LC reduced the sample complexity and increased the productivity of low-concentration components [ ]. Natural products have contributed to drug development over the past few decades and continue to do so. The lab-intensive and time-consuming of extraction and isolation processes, however, have hindered the application of natural products in drug development. As technology continues to develop, more and more new automatic and rapid techniques have been created to extract and separate natural products, which might reach the requirement of high-throughput screening.
Regarding extraction, reflux extraction is the most commonly employed technique for preparative separation. The modern extraction methods, also regarded as green extraction methods, including UAE, MAE, SFE and PLE, have also been the subject of increased attention in recent years due to their high extraction yields, selectivity, stability of the target extracts and process safety merits.
Some of those green methods have become routine sample preparation methods for analytical purposes. Regarding isolation, the development of novel packing material could enhance the efficiency of isolation, which should be researched further.
The hyphenation of chromatographic and spectroscopic or spectrometric techniques with the aim of elucidating structures without the need for isolation, such as LC-NMR and LC—MS, is a useful dereplication tool for searching for novel natural products. Although the isolation of pure natural products from complex mixtures remains challenging and we are far from one-step isolation procedures, the application of more selective methods from extraction to fractionation and purification will speed up the time from collecting biological material to isolating the final purified compound.
In conclusion, there is a clear and increasing interest in the extraction and isolation of natural products and their advantageous applications. These specific applications are also conditioning the employed extraction methods and novel stationary phases and mobile phases to be used by these techniques. It is thus expected that these trends will be maintained in the near future as they are mostly motivated by emerging consumer demands and by safety, environmental and regulatory issues.
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